The festivals and the calendar of the Celtic peoples were the public face of a religious and agricultural system that structured the entire year, marking the great turning points of the agricultural and pastoral seasons with elaborate rites, communal feasts, and gatherings that combined the practical, the religious, and the social in ways that have few parallels in the ancient world. To explore the Celtic festivals and calendar is to enter a world in which the boundaries between the sacred and the ordinary were carefully maintained by ritual, in which the great festivals of the year were the occasion for the gathering of the entire community, and in which the rhythm of the agricultural year, the religious year, and the social year were inseparable. As part of the broader world of Celtic culture and daily life, these festivals were the moments when the social and religious life of the community came together in its most concentrated form.
The evidence for the Celtic festivals is unusually rich, and it comes from a remarkable range of sources. The classical authors, particularly Caesar, Strabo, Pliny, and Lucan, give some general information about the timing and character of the Celtic festivals, although their accounts are often filtered through Roman preconceptions. The medieval Irish and Welsh manuscript tradition is the most detailed source, with the Senchas Már, the Críth Gablach, the Book of Invasions, and the various saints’ lives and mythological tales all preserving detailed accounts of festival customs. The living folk tradition of the modern Celtic-speaking regions, with its wealth of customs, songs, and ritual practices associated with particular festivals, is another major source. And the archaeological record, with its votive deposits, ritual monuments, and seasonal occupation patterns, provides important corroborating evidence for the timing and character of the older festivals.
The Quarter Days and the Fire Festivals
The Celtic year was structured around four great festivals, often called the quarter days or the fire festivals, that marked the major turning points of the agricultural and pastoral year. These four festivals, Samhain at the end of October and the beginning of November, Imbolc on 1 February, Bealtaine on 1 May, and Lughnasa at the beginning of August, divided the year into four roughly equal seasons, each marked by particular agricultural activities, particular religious rites, and particular social gatherings. The four festivals are attested in the medieval Irish and Welsh sources in considerable detail, and the same four festivals are also implied, in a more fragmentary way, by the classical sources for the continental Celtic world.
The designation of these four festivals as fire festivals reflects the central role of fire in their celebration. Each of the four was marked by the lighting of great bonfires on the prominent hills of the surrounding landscape, and the lighting of these fires was a public act that involved the entire community. The fires were lit with particular ritual procedures, often involving the use of friction or of a particular kind of wood, and they were believed to have protective, purifying, and fertility-giving powers. The cattle were driven between the fires to protect them from disease, the people walked between the fires for purification and protection, and the embers from the fires were taken back to the homes to light the household fires for the new season. The continental Celtic festival of Belenia, the festival of Belenos the bright god, is the continental equivalent of Bealtaine.
Samhain: The Beginning of the Dark Half
Samhain, celebrated at the end of October and the beginning of November, was the most important of the four great Celtic festivals, and it marked the end of the harvest, the beginning of the new year, and the beginning of the dark half of the year. The name Samhain is derived from a word meaning “summer’s end.” In the medieval Irish sources, Samhain was the most important of the festival gatherings, and the great assembly of Tara, the Feis Temro, was held on this occasion. The Fenian cycle tales give detailed accounts of the customs of Samhain, including the lighting of bonfires, the preparation of special foods, and the gathering of the community for feasting and the telling of stories.
The central religious idea of Samhain was the opening of the boundary between this world and the Otherworld. At Samhain, according to the medieval Irish tradition, the sídhe opened, and the Tuatha Dé Danann and the spirits of the dead were free to walk among the living. The púca, the bean sí (banshee), and the various other supernatural beings of Irish tradition were all believed to be particularly active at Samhain, and the rituals of the festival were designed both to honor the dead and to protect the living. The tradition of dumb supper, in which food was set at the table for the dead, and of mumming and guising, in which the living dressed as spirits and went from door to door, are direct continuations of these older practices, as are the modern customs of trick or treat and the carving of jack-o’-lanterns.
Imbolc: The Beginning of Spring
Imbolc, celebrated on 1 February, marked the beginning of spring, the first signs of the new agricultural year, and the beginning of the lambing season. The name Imbolc is probably derived from a word meaning “in the belly,” referring to the pregnancy of the ewes, and the festival was associated with the goddess Brigid, the great mother goddess of Ireland. The medieval Irish sources describe the Imbolc celebrations in considerable detail, and they include specific accounts of the making of Bríd’s crosses, the burning of Bríd’s doll, the preparation of Bríd’s bed, and the ritual visits of Bríd herself to each household.
The central religious idea of Imbolc was the renewal of the life of the earth after the death of winter. The ewes were beginning to give milk, the first flowers were appearing, and the days were beginning to lengthen. The rituals of Imbolc were designed to encourage the growth of the new year. The weather of Imbolc was believed to be a sign of the weather to come, and many of the traditional Imbolc weather proverbs survive today in the Celtic countries. The candles lit on Imbolc, the Bríd’s crosses hung in the house, and the ritual visit of Bríd to the house were all ways of welcoming the goddess and of ensuring her favor for the coming year.
The Christian transformation of Imbolc striking in the history of the Celtic festivals. The feast of Saint Brigid on 1 February, the foundation of the saint’s shrine at Kildare with its perpetual fire, the dedication of the saint to poetry and healing, and the survival of the older customs in the modern folk tradition are all evidence of the remarkable continuity between the older pagan festival and the later Christian one. The survival of Imbolc today in the Celtic countries, as St. Brigid’s Day in Ireland, as La Fhéile Bhríde in Scotland, and as Gŵyl Fair in Wales, remarkable examples of the persistence of the older Celtic festival today.
Bealtaine: The Beginning of Summer
Bealtaine, celebrated on 1 May, marked the beginning of summer, the beginning of the pastoral season, and the beginning of the agricultural growing year. The name Bealtaine is probably derived from a word meaning “the fires of Bel,” referring to the Celtic god Belenos, the bright god of fire and the sun. The central ritual of Bealtaine was the lighting of the great bonfires on the prominent hills, and the driving of the cattle between the fires for protection and purification. The cattle were also driven out to the summer pastures on or around Bealtaine, and the ritual of driving the cattle to the summer pastures important events of the agricultural year.
The central religious idea of Bealtaine was the transition from the dark half of the year to the light half, the moment at which the power of the sun was believed to be at its greatest. The rituals of Bealtaine were designed to protect the community from the dangers of this transition, to encourage the growth of the new agricultural year, and to mark the boundary between the ordered world of human habitation and the wild world of the forest. The Bealtaine fires, the maypole dances, the May queens and kings, and the May weddings are all descendants of the older customs, as are the medieval and modern customs of maying, garlanding, and bringing in the May.
Lughnasa: The Beginning of the Harvest
Lughnasa, celebrated at the beginning of August, marked the beginning of the harvest, the beginning of the season of plenty, and the festival of the god Lugh. The name Lughnasa is derived from Lugh and a word meaning “assembly” or “feast.” The medieval Irish sources describe the Lughnasa celebrations in considerable detail, and they include specific accounts of the great gatherings at the principal Lughnasa sites, the preparation of special foods, the offering of the first fruits of the harvest, the athletic contests, the horse races, the storytelling, and the ritual games of skill.
The principal Lughnasa sites in medieval Ireland were Tailtiu in County Meath, the legendary burial place of the goddess Tailtiu and the site of the Óenach Tailten; Carmun in County Kildare; Cruachan in County Roscommon; and Emain Macha in County Armagh. Each of these sites was associated with a particular legendary foundation, a particular pattern of ritual, and a particular set of customs. The games at these sites were all important occasions for athletic contests, horse races, storytelling, and trade, and they were attended by people from all over Ireland.
The religious ideas of Lughnasa were associated with the god Lugh and with the harvest. The first fruits of the harvest were offered to the god, the first loaves of bread were baked from the new grain, and the first bilberries were gathered from the hills. The athletic contests and the games of skill associated with the festival reflected Lugh’s character as the master of all skills, and the great assemblies associated with Lughnasa reflected his role as the leader and organizer of the Tuatha Dé Danann. The custom of climbing the hills on Lughnasa Sunday, of gathering bilberries and heather, of making bilberry cakes, and of visiting the holy wells associated with the festival is still observed in many parts of Ireland and Scotland, and the survival of these customs is one of the strongest pieces of evidence for the continuity of the older tradition.
The Agricultural Year
Beyond the four great quarter days, the Celtic calendar was structured by the agricultural and pastoral year. The plowing of the fields in the autumn, the sowing of the winter grain, the lambing of the ewes in early spring, the calving of the cows in late spring, the mowing of the meadows in early summer, the harvest of the grain in late summer, the gathering of the fruits and nuts in autumn, the slaughter of the surplus animals in late autumn, and the wintering of the livestock in the colder months were the practical events that structured the year, and the festivals and rituals of the Celtic calendar were closely tied to these practical events.
The relationship between the agricultural year and the religious year was not just a matter of timing. The agricultural activities of the year were themselves surrounded by ritual, and the first and last acts of each agricultural season were typically marked by particular ceremonies. The first plowing, the first sowing, the first harvest, the first gathering of fruits, and the first milking of the cows in the new season were all occasions for ritual, and the gods were believed to be particularly present at these moments. The first of anything, in the Celtic world, was sacred, and the first of the new harvest, the first of the new milk, and the first of the new fruits were typically offered to the gods before being used by the community.
Assemblies, Gatherings, and the Social Year
In addition to the agricultural and religious festivals, the Celtic calendar was structured by a series of assemblies and gatherings that combined political, legal, and social functions. The oireachtas of the major Irish kingdoms, the eisteddfod of the Welsh princes, and the tribal assembly of the continental Celtic peoples were all regular events in the Celtic year, and they were typically associated with particular festivals and particular places. The Feis Temro of Tara, the Óenach Tailten of Tailtiu, and the Eisteddfod of Cardigan are all examples of this pattern. The functions of these assemblies were remarkably varied. They were occasions for the making of laws, the settlement of disputes, the election of kings, the trading of goods, the celebration of marriages, the holding of athletic contests, the telling of stories, and the singing of songs.
Survival in the Modern Celtic Countries
The Celtic festivals have survived into the present in remarkably complete form, particularly in the Gaelic-speaking regions of Ireland, Scotland, and the Isle of Man, and in the Welsh- and Breton-speaking regions. The Oíche Shamhna of the Irish Halloween, the Lá Fhéile Bhríde of the Irish Saint Brigid’s Day, the Bealtaine celebrations of the Irish May Day, the Gwyl Fair of the Welsh May Day, and the Gouel ar Mor of the Breton saints’ days are all descendants of the older festivals.
The modern Celtic festivals are not simply survivals from the past. They are living traditions that continue to evolve, and the modern Celtic festival revival of the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries has added a new dimension to the older pattern. The Eisteddfod of Wales, the Fleadh Cheoil of Ireland, the Mod of Scotland, and the Festival Interceltique of Brittany are all examples of this modern revival.
Related Topics
- The Celtic settlements and homes of the Celtic peoples were the physical context of the festival life, with the teach and the dún as the centers of hospitality and ritual.
- The Celtic food and feasting traditions were central to the festival life, with the great feasts of the quarter days as the high points of the year.
- The Celtic clothing and adornment of the participants was often particularly elaborate at the major festivals.
- The Celtic gods and goddesses associated with the festivals are examined in detail, with attention to Lugh, Brigid, and the other deities of the Celtic pantheon.
- The history of the Celtic civilization places the festival tradition in its chronological and political context.