The clothing and personal adornment of the Celtic peoples striking features of the material record, a vivid demonstration of the Celtic love of color, ornament, and personal display. To explore Celtic clothing and adornment is to enter a world of brightly dyed woolens, elaborate metalwork, carefully groomed hair, and carefully constructed bodies, in which the way a person dressed, ornamented, and presented themselves was a primary means of social, political, and religious expression. The topic illuminates the Celtic culture and daily life and the broader history of the Celtic civilization, since dress and adornment were among the most consistent features of Celtic identity across centuries and across the wide geographic range of the Celtic world.
The evidence for Celtic clothing and adornment is rich and varied. The archaeological record, including surviving textile fragments and the thousands of metal ornaments recovered from Celtic burials, gives a detailed picture of the materials, techniques, and styles of Celtic dress. The literary record, including the testimony of classical Greek and Roman writers, the early medieval Welsh and Irish tales, and the early Irish law texts, supplements the archaeological evidence with detailed descriptions of the conventions that governed Celtic dress.
Materials and Techniques
The principal material of Celtic clothing was wool, supplemented by linen, leather, and occasionally silk. The processing of wool, from raw fleece to finished cloth, important household industries of Celtic communities, and the early Irish law texts devote considerable attention to the production of woolen cloth, specifying the rights of wool-workers and the value of different kinds of cloth. Linen, made from flax, was used especially for undergarments and fine clothing. Leather, produced from the hides of cattle, sheep, goats, and deer, was used for shoes, belts, bags, and a variety of other items.
The colors of Celtic clothing were often brilliant, achieved through the use of plant and mineral dyes that produced a striking range of hues. The classical sources were repeatedly struck by the bright colors of Celtic clothing, and the surviving textile fragments show a wide range of dyes, including red from madder, yellow from weld, blue from woad, and various greens, browns, and purples. The famous Iron Age textile fragments preserved in bog deposits in northern Europe, including the checkered woolen cloth from a Danish bog burial, show the complexity of Celtic textile design. The early Irish law texts give detailed instructions on the production of cloth, and the serchach (silk-worker), the bret[h]am (wool-worker), and the banchuirethar (weaver) were all recognized occupations in early Irish society.
The Torc
The torc, a rigid or twisted neck ring of gold, silver, bronze, or iron, has become almost an emblem of Celtic identity, and it is among the most distinctive of all Celtic personal ornaments. The torc was worn by men and women of high status throughout the Celtic world, and surviving examples from the Hallstatt and La Tène periods demonstrate the extraordinary skill of Celtic metalworkers. The earliest torcs were simple twisted neck rings, but the form developed rapidly in the La Tène period, with the addition of terminals in the form of animal heads, openwork panels, and elaborate decorative elements. The great torc from Trichtingen in Germany, the Snettisham torc from Norfolk, and the silver torcs from various Celtic hoards all demonstrate the sophistication of Celtic metalwork in this tradition.
The torc was a sign of rank, status, and religious authority, and its wearing was restricted to members of the upper classes and to certain religious and political officials. The Roman historian Diodorus Siculus describes how Celtic warriors of the highest rank wore gold torcs and bracelets, those of lower rank wore silver, and the lowest rank wore plain iron or bronze. The torc was also a sign of religious authority, and the Druids and the vates are described in classical sources as wearing distinctive gold torcs as a mark of their priestly office. The torc survived in the Celtic-speaking regions of the early medieval period as a sign of rank and religious authority, and the Viking-age and later medieval torcs from the British Isles and Ireland show the influence of both the older Celtic tradition and the new Norse and Anglo-Saxon styles.
Brooches and Other Dress Fastenings
The brooch, or fibula, was the principal fastening of Celtic clothing, and the design and decoration of Celtic brooches are among the most distinctive features of Celtic material culture. The earliest Celtic brooches were simple arched or bow-shaped designs, but the form developed rapidly in the La Tène period. The La Tène brooch, with its long curving body, spiral terminals, and curvilinear motifs, became one of the most distinctive forms of Celtic personal ornament, produced in enormous quantities across the Celtic world in the third through first centuries BCE. The Nauheim derivative brooch, a later form with an enlarged foot-plate, was widely distributed in the late La Tène period, and the Rosette brooch was characteristic of the late La Tène and Roman-period Celtic world.
The early medieval Celtic brooches, especially the great penannular and pseudo-penannular brooches of Ireland and Scotland, are among the most important of all early medieval European personal ornaments. The penannular brooch, a circular brooch with a movable pin that can be passed through the open ring, was the characteristic dress fastening of early medieval Ireland and Scotland, and surviving examples like the Tara Brooch and the Hunterston Brooch demonstrate the extraordinary sophistication of Irish metalwork in the eighth and ninth centuries. The pseudo-penannular brooch, a later form in which the ring is closed but the terminals are not joined, was widely used in the Viking and later medieval periods.
Men’s Clothing
The traditional male costume of the Iron Age Celts included a long-sleeved tunic of wool or linen, a cloak or mantle fastened at the shoulder with a brooch, trousers or leggings, and soft shoes or boots of leather. The tunic was typically knee-length or longer, brightly colored through the use of plant and mineral dyes, and decorated at the neck, sleeves, and hem with woven or embroidered patterns. The cloak or mantle was a separate garment, often of heavier wool, worn over the tunic and fastened with a large brooch.
The trousers or leggings worn by Celtic men were one of the features of Celtic dress that most struck classical observers. The Greeks and Romans regarded trousers as a sign of barbarism, although they were quick to adopt them for use by cavalry and for cold-weather wear. The Celtic trousers, often brightly patterned and sometimes decorated with metal studs or embroidery, were a distinctive feature of male dress, and they survived in some form in the Celtic-speaking regions long after they had been replaced by Mediterranean-style trousers elsewhere in Europe. The early medieval male costume of Ireland, Scotland, and Wales preserved many of these features: the léine (a long tunic, often of fine linen dyed yellow with saffron) was the basic garment, worn over a brat (a mantle or cloak) fastened with a brooch, and the triubhas (trousers) — the same word that gives English its modern “trousers” — gave the Scottish Gaelic and Irish word for this garment to the rest of Europe.
Women’s Clothing
The traditional female costume of the Iron Age Celts included a long tunic or dress of wool or linen, a mantle or shawl fastened with a brooch, and a range of accessories including belts, hairpins, necklaces, and bracelets. The female tunic was typically ankle-length, brightly colored, and decorated at the neck, sleeves, and hem. The mantle or shawl, often of heavier wool, was a separate garment worn over the tunic, fastened at the shoulder or chest with one or more brooches.
The brooches worn by Celtic women were among the most distinctive features of female dress, and the great penannular and pseudo-penannular brooches of early medieval Ireland and Scotland are particularly associated with the costume of noble and royal women. The Tara Brooch, the Hunterston Brooch, the Lough Erne brooch, and many other surviving examples show that female brooches were not only functional objects but also exquisite works of art, decorated with gold filigree, silver inlay, amber settings, and intricate interlaced patterns. The belts worn by Celtic women were also an important element of female dress, often hung with pendants or series of pendants. The early medieval female costume of Ireland, Scotland, and Wales was closely related to the older Iron Age tradition, and the early Irish law texts describe in detail the costume of women of different ranks, specifying the kinds of garments, colors, and decorations appropriate to the wife of a king, the wife of a noble, and so on.
Hairstyles and Body Adornment
The hairstyles of the ancient and medieval Celts were as elaborate as the rest of their appearance, and the descriptions of classical writers and the depictions on Celtic metalwork give a vivid picture of the variety and complexity of Celtic hairdressing. Long hair, often bleached or washed with lime water to lighten it, was a mark of the warrior class in Iron Age Celtic societies, and the sight of long-haired Celtic warriors became a Roman stereotype used in art and literature to convey the wildness of the northern barbarians. The hairstyles of Celtic men typically included long hair worn loose or tied back, often combined with a thick moustache and a beard. The moustache, often long and carefully groomed, was a particular mark of the warrior class, and the loss of the moustache through shaving was a sign of disgrace or ritual change of status.
The hairstyles of Celtic women were equally elaborate, including long loose hair, braids, plaits, buns, and elaborate arrangements decorated with hairpins, ribbons, and metal ornaments. The figure of the well-dressed, well-groomed noble woman, with her elaborate hairstyle, her fine clothes, and her abundant jewelry, is a recurring image in early medieval Irish and Welsh literature, testifying to the high value placed on personal appearance in Celtic society. Body adornment, including tattoos, body paint, and scarification, is also attested. The name Picti, applied to the Picts of northern Britain, means “the painted ones” or “the tattooed ones,” and classical sources mention that Celtic warriors sometimes painted their bodies with woad, a blue dye obtained from the plant Isatis tinctoria, producing striking blue patterns on the skin.
Jewelry and Accessories
The jewelry of the Celtic world is among the most spectacular works of art from any ancient European civilization. The principal forms included necklaces, bracelets, arm-rings, finger-rings, earrings, pendants, and belt fittings, in addition to the torcs and brooches. The materials used in Celtic jewelry included gold, silver, bronze, iron, glass, enamel, coral, amber, jet, and a variety of semi-precious stones, and the techniques used in their production included casting, hammering, filigree, granulation, inlay, and enamel work. The great hoard of third-century BCE Gaulish torcs found at Trichtingen, the Snettisham hoard from Norfolk, and the Gallehus horns from Denmark all demonstrate the extraordinary skill and ambition of Celtic metalworkers.
The early medieval Celtic jewelry of Ireland, Scotland, and Wales is among the most distinctive of any medieval European tradition. The Ardagh Chalice, the Derrynaflan Chalice, the Tara Brooch, the Hunterston Brooch, and the Moylough Belt Shrine demonstrate the extraordinary sophistication of early medieval Celtic metalwork. The Book of Kells and other early medieval Irish manuscripts also depict a range of jewelry, clothing, and personal adornment in their illustrations, and they give a vivid picture of the way in which the early medieval Celts clothed, ornamented, and presented themselves. The accessories of Celtic dress, including belts, belt fittings, purses, knife-handles, and chatelaines, were also an important part of the material record, and the chatelaine, a chain from which a variety of small objects were suspended, was a common accessory in the early medieval Celtic world.
Clothing and Social Status
The relationship between clothing and social status was close and complex in the Celtic world, and the conventions governing what a person could wear, in what colors and materials, with what ornaments, and on what occasions, were among the most important social rules of every Celtic society. The early Irish law texts devote enormous attention to the social regulation of clothing, specifying the kinds of garments, colors, and ornaments appropriate to men and women of different ranks, the occasions on which particular clothing could be worn, and the penalties for wearing clothing above or below one’s station.
The colors of clothing were especially important as markers of social status. The noble colors included ruad (red), buide (yellow), and glas (blue or green), while the colors appropriate to lower ranks were more restricted. The wearing of dyed cloth, especially in bright or unusual colors, was a mark of high status, and the ownership of large quantities of dyed cloth was one of the principal measures of a nobleman’s wealth. The materials and decorations of clothing were also important markers: the wearing of silk, of cloth interwoven with gold or silver thread, of cloth embroidered with elaborate patterns, and of cloth trimmed with fur or fine linen were all restricted to the upper classes. A person who wore clothing above their station was liable to legal penalties and social sanctions, while a person who wore clothing below their station might be accused of false modesty or of refusing to fulfill the social obligations of their rank.
Related Topics
- The Celtic art and craftsmanship of the Celtic world produced much of the metalwork and jewelry that adorned Celtic dress.
- The Celtic food and feasting traditions were occasions for the display of clothing and adornment.
- The Celtic festivals and calendar structured the occasions on which particular kinds of clothing and adornment were worn.
- The Celtic religion and mythology gave rise to many of the symbols and motifs that appear in Celtic personal ornament.
- The Celtic society and tribal organization shaped the social conventions that regulated who could wear what.