The great high crosses of Ireland, Scotland, and Northumbria are among the most impressive religious monuments of early medieval Europe, and the carved panels that cover their faces depict a rich and complex range of biblical, saintly, and ornamental subjects. The pictures on the high crosses are not random decoration but a carefully planned iconographic program, designed to communicate Christian teaching to a largely illiterate population and to celebrate the power and the learning of the monastic communities that erected them. As part of the wider tradition of Celtic stone carving and high crosses the carved panels are an essential part of the broader Celtic art and craftsmanship tradition, drawing on the ornamental vocabulary of the Hallstatt and La Tène art styles and the symbol-rich world of Celtic knotwork and symbolism.
The Structure of the High Cross
The typical Irish high cross consists of a tall, free-standing stone cross with a characteristic ring around the intersection of the arms, set on a stepped or decorated base, and often surmounted by a small house-shaped shrine or capstone. The cross is divided into a series of rectangular panels, each containing a carved scene, and the panels are framed by bands of ornamental interlace, key pattern, and spiral work that draw on the older Celtic ornamental vocabulary.
The arrangement of the panels on a high cross is not arbitrary. The most important scenes are usually placed on the front face of the cross, often on the upper arm or on the head, and the less important scenes are placed on the sides and on the back. The base of the cross typically carries scenes from the Old Testament, particularly the Fall of Man and the Expulsion from Eden, while the upper parts of the cross carry scenes from the New Testament, particularly the Passion, the Crucifixion, and the Last Judgment. The arrangement of the panels is meant to be read from the bottom up, so that the story of salvation moves from the Old Testament Fall to the New Testament Redemption.
Common Biblical Scenes
The most frequently depicted scenes on Irish high crosses are the Crucifixion, the Last Judgment, the Adoration of the Magi, the Resurrection, and the Ascension. The Crucifixion is the central image of the high cross tradition, and it appears on the majority of surviving examples, often on the upper face of the cross, where it would have been the most visible. The Cross of the Scriptures at Clonmacnoise and the Cross of Muiredach at Monasterboice both show the Crucifixion in detail, with the soldiers, the holy women, the two thieves, the sun and the moon, and the long-suffering Virgin and St John all arranged in a balanced composition that draws on the conventions of both late antique and insular art.
The Last Judgment is another common subject, and it appears on the Cross of Muiredach in one of the most elaborate of all Irish carved compositions. Christ is shown enthroned in the centre, with the apostles seated on either side, the saved souls on Christ’s right hand, and the damned on Christ’s left. The damned are shown being tortured by demons, while the saved are received by angels, and the whole scene is rendered with a vividness and a sense of movement that is unusual in early medieval sculpture. The iconography of the Last Judgment, with its elaborate display of heaven and hell, was clearly meant to make a powerful impression on the viewer.
Other common scenes include the Adoration of the Magi, in which the three kings present their gifts to the Christ child; the Resurrection, in which Christ rises from the tomb while the soldiers sleep; the Ascension, in which Christ rises into heaven in the presence of the apostles; and the Baptism of Christ, in which John the Baptist pours water over Christ’s head while the Holy Spirit descends in the form of a dove. The Raising of Lazarus, the Multiplication of the Loaves and Fishes, and various healing miracles also appear on the crosses, and a few crosses, including the Cross of Muiredach, include elaborate cycles of Old and New Testament scenes arranged in narrative order.
Saints, Founders, and Patrons
In addition to the biblical scenes, many high crosses also depict saints, founders, and patrons. Irish high crosses often show the local saint to whom the monastery was dedicated, sometimes in the act of founding the monastery, sometimes as an intercessor for the community. The Cross of Muiredach shows St Patrick and St Columba, the great monastic founders, and the Cross of the Scriptures shows the figures of saints, abbots, and kings associated with Clonmacnoise.
The depiction of contemporary figures, including kings, abbots, and donors, was an important feature of the high cross tradition, and the crosses often served as a kind of public record of the monastic community’s history and patrons. The Bealin Cross at Kells shows several contemporary figures, and the inscriptions on the crosses often identify the donors and the craftsmen, providing a rare insight into the social context in which the crosses were made.
Ornament and Symbolism
The carved panels of the high crosses are framed by elaborate bands of ornament that draw on the older Celtic and insular traditions. The interlace patterns of the borders, the key patterns of the corners, the spiral and trumpet patterns of the central panels, and the inhabited vine scroll that often appears on the base or the shaft of the cross all belong to the same visual vocabulary that appears in the manuscript illumination of the same period. The combination of biblical scene and ornamental frame distinctive features of the high cross tradition, and the unity of the two elements is one of its great aesthetic achievements.
The symbolism of the high cross itself is also important. The cross is, of course, a symbol of the Christian faith and a reminder of the Crucifixion, but the addition of the ring, the characteristic feature of the Celtic high cross, gives the monument a distinctively Irish character. The ring has been interpreted in many ways, as a halo, as a symbol of eternity, as a reference to the older Celtic wheel or solar symbol, and as a practical feature that would have helped to support the arms of the cross. The actual meaning of the ring in the early medieval context is uncertain, but it quickly became a recognisable feature of the Celtic Christian tradition.
Reading the Crosses Today
For the modern visitor, the carved panels of the high crosses are not always easy to read. The carving can be weathered, the figures are often stylised to the point of abstraction, and the conventions of the early medieval artist may be unfamiliar to the modern eye. Yet with a little patience, the basic iconography of the crosses can be made out, and the impressive fact emerges that the early medieval Irish and Northumbrian sculptors were capable of rendering complex narrative scenes in stone, with a sense of composition, of movement, and of figure design that is rarely matched in early medieval European sculpture.
The high crosses are not merely works of art but works of religious instruction. They were designed to be read by a population that was largely illiterate and that depended on visual images for its understanding of the Christian faith. The choice of subjects, the arrangement of the panels, the inclusion of saints and patrons, and the use of ornament and symbolism all reflect this didactic purpose, and the crosses are best understood as a form of visual preaching that was meant to instruct, to inspire, and to convert.
Related Topics
- The Celtic stone carving and high crosses tradition of which the carved panels are the most important surviving element.
- The Celtic knotwork and symbolism that frames and complements the biblical scenes of the crosses.
- The Celtic metalwork and jewelry tradition of the same period, which shares many ornamental motifs with the high crosses.
- The Hallstatt and La Tène art styles from which the older elements of the cross decoration descend.
- The broader Celtic art and craftsmanship tradition of which the high crosses are among the most impressive surviving monuments.